Microbial strains are the basic raw materials for many industrial processes, such as fermentation, biocatalysis, bioremediation, and biosynthesis. They are the living factories that produce valuable products, such as antibiotics, enzymes, vitamins, biofuels, and bioplastics. However, finding and obtaining the right microbial strain for a specific industrial application can be challenging, as there are millions of microorganisms in nature, and only a few of them have been isolated and characterized.

In this blog post, we will discuss some of the sources where microbial strains can be procured for industrial use, and some of the methods and criteria for selecting and evaluating them.

Sources of Microbial Strains

There are several sources where microbial strains can be procured for industrial use, such as:

• Natural environments: Microorganisms are ubiquitous and diverse in nature, and they can be found in various habitats, such as soil, water, air, plants, and animals. These natural environments are rich sources of novel and useful microbial strains that can be isolated and screened for industrial applications. However, this approach requires extensive sampling, isolation, identification, and characterization of the microorganisms, which can be time-consuming and costly¹.
• Culture collections: Culture collections are repositories of microorganisms that have been isolated and preserved by researchers or institutions. They provide access to a large number of microbial strains that have been identified and characterized for various properties, such as taxonomy, morphology, physiology, genetics, and metabolism. Culture collections also provide information on the origin, history, and availability of the microbial strains. However, this approach may not provide novel or unique microbial strains that have not been discovered or deposited before². Some examples of culture collections are:
  • ATCC, which is the largest general culture collection in the world. It offers a wide range of biological materials for research, including cell lines, microorganisms, and bioproducts.
  • The European Collection of Authenticated Cell Cultures (ECACC), which maintains and supplies cell lines and their derivatives such as DNA, RNA and cDNA.
  • The National Collection of Type Cultures (NCTC), which maintains and supplies over 6,000 bacteria and mycoplasma strains.
  • The National Collection of Pathogenic Viruses (NCPV), which maintains and supplies over 400 viruses and viral nucleic acid.
  • The National Collection of Pathogenic Fungi (NCPF), which maintains and supplies over 4000 fungal strains.
  • The United States Culture Collection Network (USCCN), which is a consortium of culture collections that share resources and best practices for preserving and distributing microorganisms.
  • The Culture Collection at NCIMB, which is part of the UK’s Biological Resource Network and includes thousands of bacteria, plasmids and bacteriophage from various sources.
• Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering is the manipulation of the genetic material of microorganisms to modify or enhance their characteristics or functions. It can be used to create new or improved microbial strains that have desirable traits for industrial applications, such as higher productivity, better stability, wider substrate range, or novel product formation. Genetic engineering can also be used to transfer genes from one microorganism to another to create recombinant strains that have combined features or capabilities. However, this approach requires advanced tools and techniques, such as plasmids, vectors, cloning, transformation, and gene editing, which can be complex and expensive³.

Methods and Criteria for Selecting and Evaluating Microbial Strains

Once the microbial strains are procured from one or more sources, they need to be selected and evaluated for their suitability and performance for a specific industrial application. This can be done by using various methods and criteria, such as:

• Screening: Screening is the process of testing a large number of microbial strains for a specific property or activity that is relevant for the industrial application. For example, screening for antibiotic production, enzyme activity, or biofuel synthesis. Screening can be done by using qualitative or quantitative methods, such as agar plates, colorimetric assays, or spectrophotometry⁴.
• Optimization: Optimization is the process of improving the property or activity of a selected microbial strain by modifying its growth conditions or genetic makeup. For example, optimization of temperature, pH, nutrients, or gene expression. Optimization can be done by using experimental design or mathematical modeling to find the optimal values or factors that maximize the desired outcome⁵.
• Scale-up: Scale-up is the process of increasing the production volume of a selected microbial strain from laboratory scale to pilot scale to industrial scale. For example, scale-up from flasks to bioreactors to fermenters. Scale-up can be done by using scaling laws or simulation tools to predict and control the effects of scale change on the process parameters and product quality.

Conclusion

Microbial strains are essential for many industrial processes that produce valuable products from renewable resources. However, finding and obtaining the right microbial strain for a specific industrial application can be challenging. Therefore, it is important to know the sources where microbial strains can be procured for industrial use, and the methods and criteria for selecting and evaluating them. By doing so, you can increase your chances of finding and obtaining a suitable and efficient microbial strain for your industrial application.

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Composite materials are made of two or more different substances that are combined to create a new material with enhanced properties. For example, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) is a composite material that consists of carbon fibers embedded in a polymer matrix. CFRP is stronger, lighter, and more resistant to corrosion than steel or aluminum.

However, to produce high-quality and high-performance composite materials, they need to undergo a special process called curing. Curing is the process of applying heat and pressure to the composite material to activate the resin and bond it with the fibers. Curing also removes any air bubbles or voids that may affect the quality or strength of the material.

One of the most common and effective methods of curing composite materials is using an autoclave. An autoclave is a device that creates a high-temperature and high-pressure environment inside a sealed chamber. An autoclave can also create a vacuum inside the chamber to remove any trapped air or moisture from the material.

Composite autoclaves are specially designed and manufactured to process composite materials for various industries, such as aerospace, automotive, sports, and construction. Composite autoclaves can handle different types and sizes of composite materials, such as sheets, tubes, rods, or complex shapes. Composite autoclaves can also operate at different temperatures and pressures depending on the specific requirements of the material.

According to one source¹, composite autoclaves have several advantages over other methods of curing composite materials, such as:

• Improved quality and consistency: The autoclave ensures a uniform temperature, pressure, and vacuum throughout the material, which results in low porosity, high density, high strength, high stiffness, and high durability.
• Enhanced performance and properties: The autoclave enhances the mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical properties of the material, which makes it suitable for demanding applications that require lightweight, corrosion-resistant, fatigue-resistant, and fire-resistant materials.
• Increased efficiency and productivity: The autoclave can process large volumes of material in a short time, with minimal waste and energy consumption. It can also handle complex shapes and geometries that are difficult to produce by other methods.

The basic components of a composite autoclave are²³:

• A pressure vessel: The pressure vessel is the main body of the autoclave that contains the material to be cured. It is usually made of carbon steel or stainless steel plates with thicknesses up to 8 inches. The pressure vessel can have different diameters and lengths depending on the size of the material.
• A heating system: The heating system provides heat to the material inside the pressure vessel. It can use electric heaters, steam generators, or heat transfer fluids as the heat source. The heating system can also control the heating rate and temperature of the material.
• A cooling system: The cooling system cools down the material inside the pressure vessel after curing. It can use water spray nozzles, air fans, or heat exchangers as the cooling medium. The cooling system can also control the cooling rate and temperature of the material.
• A pressurization system: The pressurization system applies pressure to the material inside the pressure vessel during curing. It can use air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide as the pressurizing medium. The pressurization system can also control the pressure level and duration of the material.
• A vacuum system: The vacuum system creates a vacuum inside the pressure vessel before and during curing. It can use vacuum pumps or ejectors as the vacuum source. The vacuum system can also control the vacuum level and duration of the material.
• A door system: The door system allows access to the pressure vessel for loading and unloading the material. It can be either a swing door or a quick-opening door that uses hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders to open and close. The door system also has safety interlocks and alarms to prevent accidental opening or closing during operation.
• A control system: The control system monitors and regulates all the parameters of the curing process, such as temperature, pressure, vacuum, time, etc. It can use sensors, controllers, indicators, recorders, etc., to measure and display the data. It can also use software programs to automate and optimize the process.

Some examples of products made by using composite autoclaves are:

• Aircraft wings, fuselages, tails, landing gears, propellers, etc.
• Car bodies, chassis, bumpers, spoilers, hoods, etc.
• Ski poles, snowboards, surfboards, bicycles, helmets, etc.
• Bridge beams, columns, panels, roofs, etc.

In conclusion, composite autoclaves are devices that cure composite materials under high temperature and pressure and vacuum conditions. They are widely used in various industries to produce high-quality and high-performance composite materials for various applications.

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CBD and beer are two popular substances that have been consumed for centuries for their relaxing and enjoyable effects. CBD, or cannabidiol, is a compound derived from the cannabis plant that has been shown to have various health benefits, such as reducing anxiety, pain, inflammation, and seizures. Beer is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grains, such as barley, that can induce feelings of euphoria, sociability, and relaxation.

Recently, there has been a growing interest in combining CBD and beer, either by adding CBD oil to regular beer or by brewing beer with hemp or CBD-infused ingredients. Some people claim that mixing CBD and beer can enhance their mood, reduce their stress, and improve their sleep quality. However, others warn that combining CBD and beer can have negative effects, such as increased drowsiness, impaired judgment, and liver damage.

So, what are the effects of combining CBD and beer? Is it safe to consume them together? Here are some answers to these questions based on the current scientific evidence and expert opinions.

Effects of CBD and Beer

CBD and beer can have similar effects on the body and mind, such as:

• Relaxation: Both CBD and beer can activate the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which is a network of receptors and molecules that regulate various physiological functions, including mood, stress, pain, and sleep. The ECS can produce a calming effect on the central nervous system, reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation ( 1 , 2 ).
• Sedation: Both CBD and beer can cause drowsiness and sleepiness, especially at high doses or when combined with other sedatives. This can be beneficial for people who suffer from insomnia or have trouble falling asleep. However, it can also impair cognitive and motor skills, such as memory, attention, reaction time, and coordination ( 3 , 4 ).
• Pain relief: Both CBD and beer can have analgesic effects, meaning they can reduce pain perception and inflammation. CBD can interact with various receptors and enzymes involved in pain signaling pathways, while alcohol can block the transmission of pain signals in the brain ( 5 , 6 ).
• Appetite stimulation: Both CBD and beer can stimulate appetite and increase food intake. CBD can affect the levels of hormones that regulate hunger and satiety, such as ghrelin and leptin. Alcohol can increase the release of endorphins that enhance the pleasure of eating ( 7 , 8 ).

However, CBD and beer can also have opposite effects on some aspects of health, such as:

• Alcohol metabolism: CBD can interfere with the breakdown of alcohol in the liver by inhibiting the activity of certain enzymes that are responsible for metabolizing alcohol. This can result in higher blood alcohol levels and increased risk of alcohol toxicity ( 9 , 10 ).
• Liver health: CBD can have protective effects on the liver by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation, and fibrosis caused by alcohol or other toxins. However, chronic alcohol consumption can damage the liver cells and cause fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, or liver cancer ( 11 , 12 ).
• Neurodegeneration: CBD can have neuroprotective effects by preventing neuronal death, reducing neuroinflammation, and enhancing neurogenesis. However, chronic alcohol consumption can cause brain damage by inducing oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neuronal death ( 13 , 14 ).

Safety of Combining CBD and Beer

The safety of combining CBD and beer depends on several factors, such as:

• The dose of CBD and alcohol: The higher the dose of CBD or alcohol consumed, the more likely it is to experience adverse effects or interactions. The recommended dose of CBD varies depending on the product type, potency, body weight, tolerance level, and desired effect. The recommended limit of alcohol intake is no more than one drink per day for women and two drinks per day for men ( 15 , 16 ).
• The timing of consumption: The timing of consumption can affect how CBD and alcohol interact with each other. For example, taking CBD before drinking alcohol may reduce the absorption of alcohol in the stomach or increase its metabolism in the liver. Taking CBD after drinking alcohol may enhance its sedative effect or reduce its hangover symptoms ( 17 , 18 ).
• The individual factors: The individual factors include age, gender, genetics, medical history, medication use, lifestyle habits, etc. These factors can influence how CBD and alcohol affect each person differently. For example, older people may be more sensitive to the effects of CBD or alcohol due to lower body water content or slower metabolism. Women may be more affected by alcohol than men due to lower body weight or higher body fat percentage. People who take certain medications may experience interactions with CBD or alcohol that could increase or decrease their effectiveness or cause side effects ( 19 , 20 ).

Therefore, it is advisable to consult a doctor before combining CBD and beer, especially if you have any medical conditions or take any medications. It is also important to start with low doses of CBD and alcohol and monitor your reactions carefully. If you experience any negative effects, such as dizziness, nausea, vomiting, headache, or confusion, you should stop consuming CBD and beer immediately and seek medical attention if necessary.

Conclusion

CBD and beer are two substances that can have similar or opposite effects on the body and mind, depending on the dose, timing, and individual factors. Combining CBD and beer may have some potential benefits, such as relaxation, pain relief, and appetite stimulation. However, it may also have some potential risks, such as increased drowsiness, impaired judgment, and liver damage.

Therefore,  it is important to be cautious and responsible when consuming CBD and beer together. You should consult a doctor before mixing CBD and beer, especially if you have any medical conditions or take any medications. You should also start with low doses of CBD and alcohol and monitor your reactions carefully. If you experience any negative effects, you should stop consuming CBD and beer immediately and seek medical attention if necessary.

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Whisky is one of the most popular and diverse spirits in the world, with different styles and flavors depending on the country, region, and ingredients. Whisky is made from three main ingredients: grain, water, and yeast. The grain, usually barley, is malted by soaking it in water and letting it germinate. The malted grain is then dried and crushed to extract the sugar. The sugar is fermented with yeast in tanks called washbacks, producing a low-alcohol liquid. The liquid is then distilled in copper stills to increase the alcohol content and flavor. The distilled spirit is aged in wooden casks for at least three years, depending on the type and region of whisky. Whisky can vary in smoothness, color, and taste depending on the grain, yeast, water, distillation, and maturation methods used.

Here are the five main stages of whisky making process in more detail:

Malting

Malting is the process of converting the starch in the grain into sugar that can be fermented by yeast. Malting involves soaking the grain, usually barley, in water for two or three days until it starts to sprout. The grain is then spread on a floor or a drum and turned regularly to prevent overheating and mold growth. This allows the grain to germinate and produce enzymes that break down the starch into sugar. The malting process is stopped when the grain reaches a desired level of sugar by drying it with hot air. Some whiskies use peat smoke to dry the malted barley, which gives them a distinctive smoky flavor.

Mashing

Mashing is the process of extracting the sugar from the malted barley by mixing it with hot water. The malted barley is ground into a coarse flour called grist and added to a large vessel called a mash tun with hot water. The water temperature and ratio are carefully controlled to optimize the sugar extraction. The mixture is stirred and heated for several hours until a sweet liquid called wort is produced. The wort is drained from the mash tun and transferred to a fermentation tank. The leftover solids, called draff, are used as animal feed.

Fermentation

Fermentation is the process of converting the sugar in the wort into alcohol and carbon dioxide by adding yeast. The wort is cooled down and pumped into large tanks called washbacks, where yeast is added. The yeast consumes the sugar and produces alcohol and carbon dioxide as byproducts. The fermentation process can take from 48 to 96 hours, depending on the type of yeast and temperature. The resulting liquid, called wash, has an alcohol content of about 7% to 10% and resembles beer.

Distillation

Distillation is the process of increasing the alcohol content and flavor of the wash by boiling it in copper stills. Copper stills are used because they help remove unwanted impurities and sulfur compounds from the spirit. There are two types of stills: pot stills and column stills. Pot stills are used for malt whisky production, while column stills are used for grain whisky production.

Pot still distillation involves two or three stages. The wash is heated in a large pot still called a wash still until the alcohol vapors rise and condense in a coil or worm. The condensed liquid, called low wines, has an alcohol content of about 20% to 25% and is transferred to a smaller pot still called a spirit still for a second distillation. The spirit still separates the low wines into three parts: the head, the heart, and the tail. The head contains light alcohols and impurities that are discarded or recycled. The heart contains desirable alcohols and flavors that are collected as new make spirit. The tail contains heavy alcohols and impurities that are also discarded or recycled. Some whiskies undergo a third distillation for extra purity and smoothness.

Column still distillation involves a single stage. The wash is heated in a tall column still that has multiple plates or trays with holes or valves. As the wash rises up the column, it meets steam that condenses some of its alcohol on each plate. The condensed liquid flows back down the column through the holes or valves, while the uncondensed vapor rises up to the next plate. This process repeats until only high-proof alcohol reaches the top of the column. The distilled spirit has an alcohol content of about 94% to 96% and is collected as new make spirit.

Maturation

Maturation is the process of aging the new make spirit in wooden casks for at least three years before bottling it as whisky. Maturation allows the spirit to interact with the wood and oxygen, which impart color, flavor, aroma, and complexity to the whisky. The type of wood, size of cask, previous use of cask, and storage conditions can affect the maturation process and the final character of the whisky.

The most common types of wood used for whisky casks are American oak and European oak. American oak is usually used for bourbon and Tennessee whiskey production, while European oak is usually used for sherry and wine production. The previous use of the cask can impart flavors such as vanilla, caramel, honey, spice, nut, fruit, and smoke to the whisky. The size of the cask can affect the rate of maturation and the intensity of flavor. Smaller casks have a larger surface area to volume ratio, which means more contact between the wood and the spirit and faster maturation and flavor extraction. Larger casks have a smaller surface area to volume ratio, which means less contact between the wood and the spirit and slower maturation and flavor extraction.

The storage conditions can also affect the maturation process and the final character of the whisky. The temperature, humidity, air quality, and location of the warehouse can influence the rate of evaporation, oxidation, and chemical reactions that occur in the cask. The whisky can lose some of its alcohol and water content through evaporation, which is known as the angel’s share. The whisky can also gain some of the flavors and aromas from the surrounding environment, such as sea salt, peat smoke, or flowers.

Conclusion

Whisky making process is a complex and fascinating craft that involves science, art, and tradition. Whisky can be made from different grains, yeasts, waters, distillation methods, and maturation methods, resulting in a wide range of styles and flavors. Whisky can be enjoyed neat, on the rocks, with water, or in cocktails. Whisky can also be appreciated for its history, culture, and craftsmanship.

Contact us for your equipment need. With industrial-leading short lead time and quick delivery, we can help you jump-start your project.

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Cannabidiol (CBD) is one of the most popular and widely used cannabinoids derived from the cannabis plant. CBD has been reported to have various therapeutic effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, anti-epileptic, and neuroprotective properties. CBD is also non-psychoactive, unlike its more famous cousin, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

However, not all CBD products are created equal. The quality and purity of CBD can vary significantly depending on the source, extraction method, processing, formulation, and storage conditions. Therefore, it is important to analyze the identity and purity of CBD to ensure its safety, efficacy, and compliance with regulations.

There are different methods to analyze the identity and purity of CBD, depending on the type of product and the level of accuracy required. Here are some of the most common methods used by researchers, manufacturers, and regulators.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

HPLC is a widely used technique for separating and quantifying the components of a mixture based on their different interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase. HPLC can be used to analyze the identity and purity of CBD by comparing its retention time and peak area with those of a reference standard. HPLC can also detect and quantify other cannabinoids, terpenes, flavonoids, and contaminants present in the CBD product.

HPLC requires a sample preparation step, such as filtration, dilution, or extraction, depending on the type of product. HPLC also requires a suitable column, detector, and mobile phase for optimal separation and detection of CBD and other compounds. HPLC can provide high accuracy, sensitivity, and resolution for CBD analysis.

Ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)

UPLC is a newer version of HPLC that uses smaller particles in the column and higher pressure in the mobile phase. UPLC can achieve faster analysis time, higher sensitivity, and lower solvent consumption than HPLC. UPLC can be used to analyze the identity and purity of CBD in high purity isolates using a simple sample preparation protocol and a short runtime.

According to a recent publication by chemists at Waters with assistance from their partners at ProVerde Labs ¹, UPLC can successfully quantify CBD in high purity isolates with a 1-minute sample preparation followed by a 2-minute runtime. UPLC can also detect other cannabinoids present in the isolate at low levels.

Gas chromatography (GC)

GC is another technique for separating and quantifying the components of a mixture based on their different volatilities and interactions with a stationary phase. GC can be used to analyze the identity and purity of CBD by comparing its retention time and peak area with those of a reference standard. GC can also detect and quantify other cannabinoids, terpenes, flavonoids, and contaminants present in the CBD product.

GC requires a sample preparation step, such as derivatization or extraction, depending on the type of product. GC also requires a suitable column, detector, and carrier gas for optimal separation and detection of CBD and other compounds. GC can provide high accuracy, sensitivity, and resolution for CBD analysis.

However, one drawback of GC is that it can cause the decarboxylation of acidic cannabinoids (such as CBDA) into neutral cannabinoids (such as CBD), which can affect the accuracy of the results. Therefore, GC is more suitable for analyzing decarboxylated products or products that do not contain acidic cannabinoids.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

NMR is a technique that uses magnetic fields to measure the resonance frequencies of atomic nuclei in a sample. NMR can be used to analyze the identity and purity of CBD by comparing its spectrum with that of a reference standard. NMR can also provide structural information about CBD and other compounds present in the product.

NMR requires minimal or no sample preparation, depending on the type of product. NMR also requires a suitable instrument, probe, solvent, and pulse sequence for optimal acquisition and interpretation of the spectrum. NMR can provide high accuracy, specificity, and information for CBD analysis.

However, one drawback of NMR is that it has lower sensitivity than chromatographic methods, which means that it may not detect low levels of impurities or contaminants in the product. Therefore, NMR is more suitable for analyzing high purity products or products that do not contain impurities or contaminants.

Conclusion

CBD is a valuable cannabinoid with various therapeutic effects. However, the quality and purity of CBD products can vary significantly depending on various factors. Therefore, it is important to analyze the identity and purity of CBD products to ensure their safety, efficacy, and compliance with regulations.

There are different methods to analyze the identity and purity of CBD products depending on their type and the level of accuracy required. Some of the most common methods are HPLC, UPLC, GC, and NMR. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of the best method depends on the specific application and purpose.

Contact us for your equipment need. With industrial-leading short lead time and quick delivery, we can help you jump-start your project.

¹: Determining the Quality of High Purity Cannabidiol Isolates

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A rotor stator impeller is a type of mixer that uses high-shear forces to blend, disperse, emulsify, or homogenize fluids or solids. It consists of a rotating impeller (rotor) and a stationary housing (stator) that have a small gap between them. The rotor stator impeller creates intense turbulence and shear in the gap, breaking down the particles or droplets in the fluid and producing a uniform mixture.

Rotor stator impellers are widely used in various industries, such as food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, chemical, and biotechnology. They can handle a wide range of viscosities and flow rates, and can process both batch and continuous modes. They can also be mounted in different ways, such as in-line, top entry, side entry, or bottom entry.

How Does a Rotor Stator Impeller Work?

A rotor stator impeller works by creating three types of mixing actions:

• Mechanical shear: The rotor imparts high-speed rotational motion to the fluid, creating shear stress that breaks down the particles or droplets.
• Hydraulic shear: The fluid is forced through the narrow gap between the rotor and the stator, creating high-pressure gradients that further reduce the particle or droplet size.
• Cavitation: The rapid changes in pressure and velocity in the gap cause the formation and collapse of microscopic bubbles, generating shock waves that enhance the mixing effect.

The combination of these mixing actions results in a high degree of homogeneity and dispersion in the fluid. The rotor stator impeller can also generate axial flow in the tank or pipe, improving the overall circulation and heat transfer.

What Are the Advantages of a Rotor Stator Impeller?

A rotor stator impeller has several advantages over other types of mixers, such as:

• It can produce finer particle or droplet sizes than conventional mixers, improving the stability and quality of the product.
• It can handle high-viscosity fluids and solids without clogging or overheating.
• It can operate at high speeds and power levels, increasing the productivity and efficiency of the process.
• It can be easily customized to suit different applications and requirements, by changing the design and configuration of the rotor and stator.

What Are the Applications of a Rotor Stator Impeller?

A rotor stator impeller can be used for various applications that require high-shear mixing, such as:

• Emulsification: The formation of stable mixtures of immiscible liquids, such as oil and water. Examples include mayonnaise, salad dressing, creams, lotions, paints, and coatings.
• Dispersion: The distribution of solid particles in a liquid medium. Examples include pigments, dyes, fillers, catalysts, enzymes, and nanoparticles.
• Homogenization: The reduction of variation in composition or properties within a fluid. Examples include milk, juice, yogurt, gelatin, sauces, and syrups.
• Cell disruption: The rupture of cell membranes to release intracellular contents. Examples include bacteria, yeast, algae, fungi, and animal cells.

If you want to learn more about how to use a rotor stator impeller for your mixing needs, or if you need high-quality stainless steel process equipment for your processing needs, visit Plygen Industries, a leading supplier mixing equipment for various industries.

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Introduction

Welcome to our comprehensive guide on effectively controlling pH in bioreactors. As industry leaders in bioprocessing, we understand the critical role that pH plays in maintaining optimal conditions for successful bioreactor operations. In this article, we will explore the key factors and strategies involved in achieving precise pH control in bioreactor systems. Whether you are new to bioprocessing or seeking to enhance your existing practices, this guide will provide you with the knowledge and insights to excel in this crucial aspect of bioreactor management.

Understanding the Importance of pH Control

The Significance of pH in Bioreactors

pH control is a fundamental parameter in bioreactors as it directly influences the viability, growth, and metabolic activity of microorganisms. Maintaining the appropriate pH range is vital for maximizing product yield, minimizing undesirable by-products, and ensuring the overall success of bioprocesses. Proper pH control provides an ideal environment for the growth and activity of the target microorganisms, leading to enhanced efficiency and desired outcomes.

Factors Affecting pH in Bioreactors

Several factors can influence pH in bioreactors, and understanding these variables is essential for effective control. Some key factors include:

1. Metabolic Activity: Microorganisms produce organic acids or alkali during metabolic processes, which can significantly impact pH levels. The type of microorganism, substrate used, and the specific metabolic pathways involved can all influence pH fluctuations.
2. Nutrient Composition: The selection and composition of the growth medium can impact pH stability. Some components may act as buffers, helping to maintain a desired pH range, while others may contribute to pH shifts.
3. Gas Exchange: The exchange of gases, particularly carbon dioxide and oxygen, can affect pH levels. Carbon dioxide can dissolve in water and form carbonic acid, leading to a decrease in pH, while oxygen can react with water and increase pH.

Strategies for Effective pH Control

1. Monitoring and Measurement

Accurate and frequent pH monitoring is crucial for effective control. Utilizing reliable pH sensors and meters, bioprocess operators can continuously monitor pH levels in real-time. Automated systems can provide precise measurements and timely feedback, allowing for prompt adjustments when necessary.

2. Buffer Solutions

Buffers play a vital role in maintaining pH stability by resisting changes in acidity or alkalinity. Incorporating suitable buffer solutions into the bioreactor can help counteract any acid or base production by the microorganisms. It is essential to select buffers that are compatible with the microorganisms and the target pH range.

3. pH Adjustment

To control pH levels, adjustments are often required. Two common methods for pH adjustment are:

• Addition of Acid or Base: Depending on the required pH direction, either acid or base can be added in a controlled manner. This method is typically used in batch or fed-batch processes.
• Gas Regulation: In continuous bioreactors, pH control can be achieved by regulating the flow of carbon dioxide or air, which affects the carbonic acid and oxygen concentrations in the system, respectively.

4. Automation and Feedback Control

Automation systems equipped with feedback control mechanisms can provide efficient pH regulation. By integrating pH measurements with automated control systems, adjustments can be made in real-time based on predefined setpoints. This approach minimizes human error and ensures consistent and accurate pH control throughout the bioprocess.

Conclusion

Achieving precise pH control is vital for optimizing bioprocesses and obtaining desired outcomes in bioreactors. By understanding the significance of pH, monitoring pH levels, employing suitable buffer solutions, and implementing effective pH adjustment strategies, bioprocess operators can maintain optimal conditions for microbial growth and metabolic activity. With the right tools and practices in place, mastering pH control in bioreactors becomes a key component of successful bioprocessing operations.

Note: This article is intended as a general guide and may not cover specific scenarios or processes. Always consult with industry professionals and experts for tailored recommendations based on your unique requirements.

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Beer fermentation is the process of transforming the sugars in the wort (the liquid extracted from the malted grains) into alcohol and carbon dioxide by the action of yeast. Fermentation is one of the most important and critical steps in brewing, as it determines the flavor, aroma, color, and body of the beer. Fermentation is also influenced by several factors, such as the wort composition and oxygen level, the yeast quality and quantity, the fermentation temperature and time, and the fermenter design. Controlling these factors in the fermentation process is essential for brewing the best beer possible. In this article, we will explain what are these factors, how they affect the fermentation process, and how to control them.

What are the Important Factors in the Beer Fermentation Process?

Some important factors in the fermentation process are:

• Wort composition and oxygen level: The wort composition refers to the amount and type of sugars, proteins, minerals, and other compounds present in the wort. The wort composition affects the yeast growth, metabolism, and product formation. The wort oxygen level refers to the amount of dissolved oxygen available in the wort. The wort oxygen level affects the yeast respiration, cell membrane synthesis, and stress tolerance.
• Yeast quality and quantity: The yeast quality refers to the viability, vitality, purity, and genetic stability of the yeast. The yeast quality affects the yeast performance, fermentation rate, attenuation, flocculation, and flavor production. The yeast quantity refers to the amount of yeast cells added to the wort (also known as pitching rate). The yeast quantity affects the yeast growth phase, fermentation kinetics, and flavor profile.
• Fermentation temperature and time: The fermentation temperature refers to the temperature at which the fermentation takes place. The fermentation temperature affects the yeast activity, metabolism, and product formation. The fermentation time refers to the duration of the fermentation process. The fermentation time affects the degree of fermentation completion, maturation, and conditioning.
• Fermenter design: The fermenter design refers to the shape, size, material, and configuration of the fermentation vessel. The fermenter design affects the mixing, aeration, cooling, pressure, and headspace of the fermentation.

How to Control Wort Composition and Oxygen Level?

The wort composition can be controlled by adjusting:

• The malt bill (the type and amount of grains used)
• The mashing process (the process of steeping and heating the grains in water)
• The boiling process (the process of boiling and adding hops to the wort)

The wort composition should provide enough fermentable sugars for the yeast to produce the desired alcohol level, as well as enough proteins, minerals, and other compounds to support the yeast health and flavor development.

The wort oxygen level can be controlled by using:

• An oxygenation system that injects pure oxygen or air into the wort before or during pitching
• A stirring or shaking device that aerates the wort by creating turbulence

The wort oxygen level should provide enough oxygen for the yeast to perform aerobic respiration, which is necessary for cell growth and membrane synthesis, as well as for reducing oxidative stress.

How to Control Yeast Quality and Quantity?

The yeast quality can be controlled by using:

• A yeast propagation system that cultivates fresh and healthy yeast cells from a pure culture or a starter
• A yeast storage system that preserves the viability, vitality, purity, and genetic stability of the yeast

The yeast quality should ensure that the yeast is active, healthy, pure, and stable, and that it has the desired characteristics for the beer style.

The yeast quantity can be controlled by using:

• A pitching calculator that determines the optimal pitching rate based on the wort gravity (the measure of sugar concentration), volume, temperature, and yeast strain
• A pitching device that delivers the calculated amount of yeast cells into the wort

The yeast quantity should ensure that there is enough yeast cells to start and complete the fermentation process, and that they produce the desired flavor profile.

How to Control Fermentation Temperature and Time?

The fermentation temperature can be controlled by using:

• A temperature control system that monitors and adjusts the temperature of the fermenter by using a heating or cooling device (such as a jacket, a coil, or a pad)
• A temperature probe or sensor that measures the temperature of the fermenting wort

The fermentation temperature should be within the optimal range for the yeast strain used, as different yeasts have different temperature preferences. Generally speaking, lager yeasts prefer cooler temperatures (around 45-55°F or 10-13°C), while ale yeasts prefer warmer temperatures (around 65-70°F or 18-21°C).

The fermentation time can be controlled by using:

• A fermentation monitor that measures the specific gravity (the measure of density), pH, or DO of the fermenting wort and indicates the end of the fermentation process
• A hydrometer or refractometer that measures the specific gravity of the fermenting wort

The fermentation time should be long enough for the yeast to consume the sugars and produce the alcohol and carbon dioxide, as well as to clean up any off-flavors or by-products. The fermentation time can vary depending on the type and style of beer, the yeast strain used, and the fermentation temperature.

How to Control Fermenter Design?

The fermenter design can be chosen based on:

• The type and style of beer to be brewed
• The scale and capacity of production
• The budget and space available

There are different types and shapes of fermenters, such as:

• Conical fermenters, which have a cone-shaped bottom that allows for easy yeast harvesting and sediment removal
• Cylindrical fermenters, which have a cylindrical shape that provides a large surface area for gas exchange and cooling
• Open fermenters, which have no lid or cover that allows for natural ventilation and evaporation

There are also different materials for fermenters, such as:

• Stainless steel, which is durable, easy to clean, and resistant to corrosion and contamination
• Glass, which is transparent, easy to monitor, and inert to chemical reactions
• Plastic, which is lightweight, inexpensive, and flexible

The fermenter design should provide adequate mixing, aeration, cooling, pressure, and headspace for the fermentation process, as well as suit the needs and preferences of the brewer.

Conclusion

Fermentation is the process of transforming the sugars in the wort into alcohol and carbon dioxide by the action of yeast. Fermentation is one of the most important and critical steps in brewing, as it determines the flavor, aroma, color, and body of the beer. Fermentation is also influenced by several factors, such as the wort composition and oxygen level, the yeast quality and quantity, the fermentation temperature and time, and the fermenter design. Controlling these factors in the fermentation process is essential for brewing the best beer possible. There are different methods and devices for controlling these factors in the fermentation process, such as oxygenation system, yeast propagation system, pitching calculator, temperature control system, fermentation monitor, etc.

Contact us for your equipment need. With industrial-leading short lead time and quick delivery, we can help you jump-start your project.

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DO, or dissolved oxygen, is the amount of oxygen that is dissolved in the liquid medium of a bioreactor. DO is an important parameter for aerobic bioprocesses, such as cell culture or fermentation, that involve the growth and metabolism of microorganisms that require oxygen. DO affects the viability, productivity, and quality of the microorganisms and their products.

Controlling DO in a bioreactor is a challenging and essential task that requires careful monitoring and adjustment of various factors and variables that influence the oxygen transfer and consumption in the bioreactor. In this article, we will explain what are the factors and variables that affect DO in a bioreactor, how to measure and control DO in a bioreactor, and what are the benefits and challenges of controlling DO in a bioreactor.

What are the Factors and Variables that Affect DO in Bioreactor?

The DO in a bioreactor is determined by the balance between the oxygen transfer from the gas phase to the liquid phase and the oxygen consumption by the microorganisms in the liquid phase. The oxygen transfer rate (OTR) and the oxygen uptake rate (OUR) are two key parameters that quantify the oxygen transfer and consumption in a bioreactor.

The OTR depends on several factors and variables, such as:

• The physical properties of the liquid medium, such as viscosity, density, solubility, etc.
• The geometry and size of the bioreactor vessel, such as height, diameter, aspect ratio, etc.
• The agitation system of the bioreactor, such as impeller type, speed, number, location, etc.
• The aeration system of the bioreactor, such as sparger type, flow rate, pressure, gas composition, etc.
• The presence of baffles or other devices that enhance mixing and prevent vortex formation in the bioreactor.

The OUR depends on several factors and variables, such as:

• The type and strain of the microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, fungi, mammalian cells, etc.
• The growth rate and biomass concentration of the microorganisms in the bioreactor.
• The metabolic activity and product formation of the microorganisms in the bioreactor.
• The availability and concentration of nutrients (such as sugars, nitrogen sources, vitamins, minerals, etc.) and inhibitors (such as ethanol, lactic acid, etc.) in the bioreactor.

How to Measure and Control DO in Bioreactor?

The measurement and control of DO in a bioreactor are usually performed by using a DO sensor and a DO controller. A DO sensor is a device that measures the DO concentration in the liquid medium of a bioreactor. A DO controller is a device or a software that adjusts the variables that affect OTR or OUR to maintain the DO concentration at a desired setpoint.

A common type of DO sensor is an electrochemical sensor that consists of an anode (usually platinum), a cathode (usually silver), an electrolyte (usually potassium chloride), and a membrane (usually Teflon). The sensor works by applying a voltage between the anode and the cathode and measuring the current that flows through them. The current is proportional to the amount of oxygen that diffuses through the membrane and reacts at the electrodes. The sensor output is calibrated against a standard solution with known DO concentration.

A common type of DO controller is a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller that uses a feedback loop mechanism to adjust the variables that affect OTR or OUR based on the error between the measured DO concentration and the setpoint. The PID controller consists of three terms: proportional (P), integral (I), and derivative (D). The P term adjusts the variables proportionally to the error; the I term adjusts the variables based on the accumulated error over time; and the D term adjusts the variables based on the rate of change of error. The PID controller parameters (P, I, and D values) can be tuned manually or automatically to optimize the performance of the controller.

A common way to control DO in a bioreactor is to use a DO cascade that involves two or more controllers that adjust different variables that affect OTR or OUR. For example, a typical DO cascade for cell culture consists of:

• A primary controller that adjusts the gas flow rate or pressure to control OTR.
• A secondary controller that adjusts the agitation speed or impeller type to control OTR.
• A tertiary controller that adjusts the gas composition or pure oxygen flow rate to control OTR.

The primary controller is activated first when there is an error between the measured DO concentration and the setpoint. If the primary controller cannot correct the error, the secondary controller is activated. If the secondary controller cannot correct the error, the tertiary controller is activated. The DO cascade can be set up in and executed by the bioprocess control software.

What are the Benefits and Challenges of Controlling DO in Bioreactor?

The benefits of controlling DO in a bioreactor are:

• It improves the productivity and quality of the microorganisms and their products by providing optimal oxygen availability and demand for their growth and metabolism.
• It reduces the cost and waste of the bioprocess by optimizing the gas and power consumption and preventing accumulation of toxic metabolites or excess heat in the bioreactor.
• It facilitates the scale up and technology transfer of the bioprocess by standardizing the DO control strategy and parameters for different scales and types of bioreactors.

The challenges of controlling DO in a bioreactor are:

• It requires accurate and reliable measurement and control devices and software that can handle the complexity and variability of the bioprocess and the bioreactor.
• It requires careful tuning and optimization of the DO control parameters (such as PID values, cascade levels, setpoints, etc.) that can vary depending on the type and stage of the bioprocess and the bioreactor.
• It requires coordination and integration of the DO control with other control systems (such as temperature, pH, nutrient delivery, etc.) that can affect or be affected by the DO control in the bioreactor.

Conclusion

DO is an important parameter for aerobic bioprocesses that involve the growth and metabolism of microorganisms that require oxygen. DO affects the viability, productivity, and quality of the microorganisms and their products. Controlling DO in a bioreactor is a challenging and essential task that requires careful monitoring and adjustment of various factors and variables that influence the oxygen transfer and consumption in the bioreactor. There are different methods and devices for measuring and controlling DO in a bioreactor, such as DO sensor, DO controller, PID controller, DO cascade, etc. Controlling DO in a bioreactor has several benefits and challenges that need to be considered and addressed for optimal bioprocess performance.

Contact us for your equipment need. With industrial-leading short lead time and quick delivery, we can help you jump-start your project.

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Fermentation is a bioprocess that involves the growth of microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, or fungi, in a liquid medium to produce various products, such as biopharmaceuticals, food and food additives, chemicals, and biofuels. Fermentation can be performed in different types of vessels, such as shake flasks, cell culture dishes, T-flasks, bioreactors, or fermenters.

Scaling up fermentation processes is the process of transferring a fermentation process from a small-scale laboratory setting to a large-scale industrial setting, with the aim of achieving the same productivity and quality of the product at a larger volume and lower cost. Scaling up fermentation processes is a challenging and complex task that requires careful planning and execution. There are several factors and parameters that need to be considered and controlled during scaling up fermentation processes, such as:

• Cell expansion and density: The growth rate and biomass concentration of the microorganisms affect the product yield and quality, as well as the mass and heat transfer, nutrient delivery, and oxygen demand in the fermentation vessel. The cell expansion and density should be maintained at optimal levels throughout the fermentation process, regardless of the scale.
• Mass and heat transfer: The transfer of mass (such as nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, products, etc.) and heat between the liquid medium and the microorganisms is essential for the metabolic activity and product formation of the microorganisms. The mass and heat transfer rates depend on the physical properties of the medium (such as viscosity, density, etc.), the geometry and size of the vessel, the agitation speed and type of impeller, the aeration rate and type of sparger, etc. The mass and heat transfer rates should be sufficient to meet the demand of the microorganisms and to prevent accumulation of toxic metabolites or excess heat in the vessel.
• Mixing: The mixing of the liquid medium and the microorganisms is important for achieving uniform distribution of temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, products, etc. in the vessel. The mixing also affects the shear stress and bubble size in the vessel, which can influence the viability and productivity of the microorganisms. The mixing intensity and efficiency depend on the agitation speed and type of impeller, the geometry and size of the vessel, the baffles or other devices that prevent vortex formation, etc. The mixing should be adequate to ensure homogeneity and stability of the culture without causing damage or stress to the microorganisms.
• Gassing: The gassing of the liquid medium with air or other gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc.) is necessary for providing oxygen for aerobic microorganisms or for controlling pH or redox potential for anaerobic microorganisms. The gassing also affects the mass transfer rate of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the vessel. The gassing rate and efficiency depend on the aeration rate and type of sparger, the agitation speed and type of impeller, the geometry and size of the vessel, etc. The gassing should be sufficient to satisfy the oxygen demand or pH or redox potential of the microorganisms without causing excessive foaming or gas holdup in the vessel.
• Nutrient delivery: The delivery of nutrients (such as sugars, nitrogen sources, vitamins, minerals, etc.) to the microorganisms is essential for their growth and product formation. The nutrient delivery rate and mode depend on the type of fermentation configuration (such as batch, fed-batch, or continuous mode), the type of nutrient feed (such as concentrated solution, powder, or pellet), the type of feed pump (such as peristaltic pump, syringe pump, or piston pump), the location of feed inlet (such as top, bottom, or side), etc. The nutrient delivery should be controlled to provide adequate and balanced supply of nutrients to the microorganisms without causing substrate inhibition or accumulation of by-products in the vessel.

How to Choose Scaling Up Criteria?

The choice of scaling up criteria is a critical step in scaling up fermentation processes. Scaling up criteria are parameters or variables that are kept constant or proportional between different scales of fermentation vessels. Scaling up criteria are used to ensure similarity or equivalence of performance and behavior of the microorganisms and their products at different scales.

There are different methods or approaches for choosing scaling up criteria for fermentation processes, such as:

• Keeping mixing times equal: This method assumes that mixing time is a key factor that affects mass transfer, heat transfer, and mixing homogeneity in the fermentation vessel. Mixing time is defined as the time required for a tracer substance to be uniformly distributed throughout the vessel by the action of agitation and aeration. Mixing time can be measured by adding a dye or an electrical pulse to the vessel and monitoring its concentration or voltage at different locations in the vessel. By keeping mixing times equal between different scales of fermentation vessels, it is expected that the mass transfer, heat transfer, and mixing homogeneity will be similar as well.
• Keeping power to liquid volume ratio equal: This method assumes that power to liquid volume ratio is a key factor that affects mass transfer, heat transfer, and mixing intensity in the fermentation vessel. Power to liquid volume ratio is defined as the ratio of the power input by the impeller and the sparger to the liquid volume in the vessel. Power to liquid volume ratio can be calculated by measuring the torque and the rotational speed of the impeller and the pressure and the flow rate of the sparger. By keeping power to liquid volume ratio equal between different scales of fermentation vessels, it is expected that the mass transfer, heat transfer, and mixing intensity will be similar as well.
• Keeping oxygen transfer coefficient or oxygen uptake rate equal: This method assumes that oxygen transfer coefficient or oxygen uptake rate is a key factor that affects oxygen availability and demand for aerobic microorganisms in the fermentation vessel. Oxygen transfer coefficient is defined as the rate of oxygen transfer from the gas phase to the liquid phase per unit driving force (such as oxygen concentration difference or partial pressure difference) in the vessel. Oxygen uptake rate is defined as the rate of oxygen consumption by the microorganisms per unit biomass in the vessel. Oxygen transfer coefficient and oxygen uptake rate can be measured by using dynamic or steady state methods, such as gassing out, sulfite oxidation, respirometry, etc. By keeping oxygen transfer coefficient or oxygen uptake rate equal between different scales of fermentation vessels, it is expected that the oxygen availability and demand will be similar as well.

Conclusion

Scaling up fermentation processes is a complex and challenging task that requires careful consideration and control of various factors and parameters that affect the performance and behavior of the microorganisms and their products at different scales. There are different methods or approaches for choosing scaling up criteria for fermentation processes, such as keeping mixing times equal, keeping power to liquid volume ratio equal, or keeping oxygen transfer coefficient or oxygen uptake rate equal. Understanding these methods and their advantages and disadvantages can help you choose the best scaling up criteria for your fermentation process, and accordingly the best fermentation equipment and stainless steel tanks.

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